For organisms with large genomes, however, this procedure generated a smear of DNA because of the millions of fragments. The pieces would migrate at different rates, depending on size. They could then separate the resulting pieces by loading the collection onto an agarose gel and applying an electric current. Scientists knew that they could chop up DNA using restriction enzymes, proteins that cut DNA at particular sequences. In the mid-1970s, Ed Southern (at the Medical Research Council Mammalian Genome Unit in Edinburgh) wanted to develop a method that would pinpoint a particular gene amidst the more than a billion building blocks - or basepairs - that compose the frog Xenopus laevis genome. This situation severely restricted efforts to define genetic differences that characterize species, individuals, and specific cell types, thus hampering the study of subjects as diverse as evolution and the physiological characteristics of distinct tissues. Until the mid-1970s, the ability to locate most genes or sequences of interest on the chromosomes of complex organisms was nearly impossible. Technology has always defined the strength of genetic analysis. Its ability to establish family relationships as well as individual identity has helped solve crimes, settle paternity and immigration disputes, establish the bases of inherited diseases, enhance transplantation biology, save endangered species, establish human origins and migrations, and advance countless other beneficial endeavors. Using this technology, Alec Jeffreys devised 'genetic fingerprinting', a way to distinguish every person from every other person, except an identical twin. Suddenly scientists could study genetic variation in detail and decipher gene structures. By inventing a method for detecting specific DNA sequences amidst the huge genomes of complex organisms, Edwin Southern infused genetic analysis with tremendous power. The 2005 Albert Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research honors two scientists who revolutionized human genetics and forensic diagnostics.
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